are used to demonstrate mastery of high performance turns in both airplanes and gliders. While achieving maximum turning performance, the pilot should expect to experience increased [[Load Factor]], [[Adverse Yaw]], [[Overbanking Tendency]], and [[Parallax]] effects. ### Turning Performance Maximum turning performance is achieved at a maximum [[Rate of Turn]] and a minimum [[Radius of Turn]]. Increasing bank angle and decreasing airspeed both increase turning performance. ### Load Factor [[Load Factor in Turns]] becomes significant at steep bank angles; increasing bank angle results in an increased load factor. To avoid an excessive load factor, 45°-50° bank angles are normally used when performing steep turns, resulting in a load factor of approximately 1.4 - 1.6 Gs. ### Adverse Yaw - The pilot will experience significant adverse yaw during the roll-in and roll-out of the steep turn, due to [[Adverse Yaw#Aileron Deflection]] and [[Adverse Yaw#Change in Relative Wind When Rolling]]. - The pilot will experience a slipping tendency once established in the turn due to [[Adverse Yaw#Wing Speed Differential]] ### Overbanking Tendency Once established in the turn, the pilot will experience an overbanking tendency due to [[Overbanking Tendency#Wing Speed Differential]]. ### Parallax If flying an aircraft with side-by-side seats, the pilot will need to anticipate and compensate for [[Parallax#Turning Flight]]. ## Steep Turns in Airplanes (C172S Lesson) The pilot will perform: - A 360° turn in one or both directions, at a 45° bank angle for private applicants. - A 360° turn in both directions, at a 50° bank angle for commercial applicants. ### Execution - Complete setup, maintain 90KIAS/2200RPM. - Align airplane with visual heading reference. - After raising wing to visually clear, look **straight ahead** at the horizon while establishing the correct bank and pitch attitude for the steep turn. - Establish a 45° or 50° angle between the glare shield and the horizon. For a pilot seated on the left side, the horizon should be located on/near the left longitudinal line of rivets on the engine cowl during a left turn, and the horizon should be located on/near the left side of the engine cowl during a right turn. These references will be mirrored for a pilot on the right side. - As the airplane passes 30° bank during roll-in, add ~150RPM and one wheel of nose up trim. - Begin rolling out approximately 25° prior to the visual heading reference. - As the airplane passes 30° bank during roll-out, reduce power by ~150RPM and trim one wheel nose down if complete with the maneuver. If immediately performing another steep turn, anticipate adding forward elevator pressure, rather than nose down trim. - Perform a turn in the opposite direction as required. ![[commercial steep turn left.png]] ![[commercial steep turn right.png]] ### Standards Private Pilot + Commercial Pilot: - Altitude ±100ft, airspeed ±10kts, bank ±5°, entry heading ±10° ## Steep Turns in Gliders (SGS 2-33) Steep turns are a prerequisite skill for thermal soaring techniques. All pilot applicants will demonstrate steep turns at a 45° bank; 720° turns are specified for commercial applicants, a specific amount of heading change is not specified for private/sport applicants. ### Execution - Complete setup, maintain 60mph or appropriate speed (50mph if [[Correcting Performance Speeds]] for minimum sink at 45° bank) - Align glider with visual heading reference. - After raising wing to visually clear, look **straight ahead** at the horizon while establishing the correct bank and pitch attitude for the steep turn. - The correct pitch attitude will result in the static (lower) tube aligned with the horizon. A 45° bank attitude can be maintained by comparing the horizon with a projected line through the flight instrument mounting screws, or another fixed reference in the glider cockpit. - After completing the desired amount of turning, begin rolling out approximately 25° prior to the visual heading reference. ![[Bill Palmer 45 degree reference.png]] ### Standards Private Pilot/Sport Pilot: - airspeed ±10kts, bank ±5°, desired heading ±10° Commercial Pilot: - airspeed ±5kts, bank ±5°, entry heading ±10° ### Common Errors - Failure to clear the area - Uncoordinated use of flight controls - Loss of orientation - Failure to maintain speed - Unintentional stall or spin; see [[Load Factor and Stall Speed]] - Failure to roll out on desired heading